Destemming is the process of removing the stems from grape clusters before fermentation. In winemaking, destemming plays a critical role in controlling the wine’s tannin levels and overall flavor profile. Stems contain tannins, which can contribute bitterness or astringency to wine if left during fermentation. While tannins are an essential part of a wine’s structure, too many tannins from stems can overpower the wine’s other characteristics, resulting in an unbalanced product.
Winemakers often use destemming for red wines, but it can also be done in white wine production. The decision to destem or not depends on the style of wine the winemaker aims to create. Some winemakers choose to ferment grapes with the stems, a technique known as whole-cluster fermentation. This method can add complexity and structure to the wine but also introduces more tannins, which need to be managed carefully.
The destemming process can be done by hand or with mechanical destemmers. In small-scale or artisanal winemaking, hand-destemming is sometimes preferred because it allows more control over the selection of grapes. However, in large-scale commercial wineries, mechanical destemmers are used for efficiency. These machines remove the stems from the grapes while keeping the grape skins intact, which is crucial for the fermentation process.
Destemming also affects the texture and mouthfeel of the wine. Removing stems tends to create wines that are smoother and more approachable when young. Wines made without destemming often require longer aging to soften the tannins. While destemming adds an extra step to the winemaking process, it gives winemakers greater control over the final product, allowing them to create wines with the desired balance of fruit, acidity, and tannin.
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Dosage is a crucial step in the winemaking process for sparkling wines, particularly Champagne. After the second fermentation, which occurs in the bottle, the winemaker adds a mixture called “liqueur d’expédition.” This mixture is a combination of wine and sugar, and the amount added determines the final sweetness of the sparkling wine. The goal of dosage is to balance the wine’s natural acidity and tailor it to a specific sweetness level.
Sparkling Wines
In sparkling wines, the levels of dosage vary, and each category has a specific amount of sugar. The driest level is “Brut Nature” or “Zero Dosage,” where no sugar is added. This results in a very dry wine with high acidity. Next is “Extra Brut,” followed by “Brut,” the most common category, which has a minimal amount of sugar. Moving up the sweetness scale, we encounter “Extra Dry,” “Sec,” “Demi-Sec,” and finally “Doux,” which is the sweetest type of sparkling wine, with over 50 grams of sugar per liter.
Dosage plays a significant role in shaping the final character of the wine. Without it, the wine could taste overly acidic or unbalanced. By carefully controlling the amount of sugar added, winemakers ensure the sparkling wine appeals to different tastes, from those who prefer a bone-dry Champagne to those who enjoy a touch of sweetness in their bubbly. Dosage also helps in aging sparkling wines. Over time, the sugar interacts with the wine, developing complex flavors and a refined texture.
Choosing the right dosage is a blend of art and science. Winemakers must consider the natural characteristics of the wine, its acidity, and its overall structure before deciding how much sugar to add. Too much or too little can throw off the balance, making dosage one of the more nuanced elements of sparkling winemaking.
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Moscatel (also known as Muscat) is a grape variety known for its fragrant, floral aromas and sweet flavors. It is one of the oldest grape varieties in the world, with a rich history of cultivation dating back thousands of years. Moscatel grapes are used to produce a wide range of wine styles, from dry table wines to sweet dessert wines, and they are grown in many wine regions around the globe, particularly in southern Europe, including Spain, Portugal, and Italy.
Intensely Aromatic Character
The grape is notable for its intensely aromatic character, often featuring notes of orange blossom, jasmine, and honeysuckle, along with flavors of ripe stone fruits like peaches and apricots. This aromatic profile makes it a favorite among winemakers who specialize in sweet wines, as the naturally high sugar content of the Moscatel grape lends itself well to dessert-style wines. However, Moscatel is also used in the production of sparkling wines, fortified wines like Moscatel de Setúbal (from Portugal), and even dry or off-dry wines.
One of the most famous styles of Moscatel wine is Moscato d’Asti, a lightly sparkling and sweet wine from the Piedmont region of Italy. Moscato d’Asti is known for its low alcohol content and its fresh, fruity flavors, making it an ideal pairing for fruit-based desserts or as an aperitif.
The versatility of Moscatel lies in its ability to be made into a range of wine styles. In fortified wines, like Moscatel de Setúbal, the wine is often aged in oak barrels, developing complex layers of dried fruit, honey, and nutty flavors. This style of wine is popular in southern Portugal and Spain, where it is enjoyed with desserts or as a stand-alone after-dinner wine.
Moscatel wines are often appreciated for their easy-drinking nature, bright acidity, and lush sweetness, making them a popular choice for both wine connoisseurs and casual drinkers alike.
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The palate refers to the sensory experience of tasting wine, encompassing the range of flavors, textures, and sensations that you perceive when sipping wine. In the context of wine tasting, the palate plays a crucial role in how a wine’s qualities—such as sweetness, acidity, tannins, alcohol, and body—are experienced. While the term originally refers to the roof of the mouth, in wine tasting, it symbolizes the combined function of taste buds, mouthfeel, and even aroma to create a comprehensive impression of a wine.
Wine tasters often refer to the entry, mid-palate, and finish when describing how a wine interacts with the palate:
Entry is the first impression you get when the wine hits your mouth. It involves initial flavors, such as fruit, sweetness, or acidity.
Mid-palate refers to the flavors and texture that develop as the wine coats the inside of your mouth. This phase reveals a wine’s complexity, structure, and how its elements (like tannins and acidity) balance with each other.
Finish describes the lingering flavors and sensations after swallowing the wine. A long, pleasant finish often indicates a well-crafted wine.
The palate is key in detecting a wine’s balance and integration. For example, you can sense whether a wine’s acidity is sharp, whether the tannins are smooth or rough, and whether the body feels light or full. Wine tasters often comment on a wine’s “palate weight,” which refers to the body or mouthfeel, whether it’s light, medium, or heavy.
Developing a refined palate is a skill that comes with practice. By paying attention to the nuances in flavors and textures, you can better appreciate the complexities that different wines offer.
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Quercetin is a type of flavonoid, a class of plant compounds known for their antioxidant properties. It is commonly found in a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains, with especially high concentrations in apples, onions, berries, citrus fruits, and red wine. Quercetin plays an essential role in protecting plants from environmental stressors such as UV radiation and pathogens, and its antioxidant benefits extend to human health as well.
As an antioxidant, quercetin helps neutralize free radicals in the body, which are unstable molecules that can damage cells and contribute to aging and the development of chronic diseases. Studies suggest that quercetin may offer several health benefits, including reducing inflammation, lowering blood pressure, and improving cardiovascular health. Its anti-inflammatory properties are particularly noteworthy, as they can help manage conditions like arthritis and certain autoimmune disorders.
In Red Wine
In red wine, quercetin is one of the many polyphenols that contribute to the wine’s potential health benefits. The compound is primarily found in the skins of grapes, which are used in the fermentation process for red wine. This is why red wine is considered a more potent source of quercetin compared to white wine, where the grape skins are removed early in the production process.
Quercetin’s potential to lower the risk of heart disease has made it a subject of interest in the study of the French Paradox, where moderate red wine consumption is linked to better heart health despite a diet rich in saturated fats. By reducing inflammation and preventing the oxidation of LDL (bad) cholesterol, quercetin may help protect against atherosclerosis, a condition that can lead to heart attacks and strokes.
While quercetin can be obtained through dietary sources like fruits, vegetables, and wine, it is also available in supplement form. However, as with many nutrients, getting quercetin from whole foods is considered the best way to maximize its benefits.
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The French Paradox refers to the seemingly contradictory observation that despite a diet rich in saturated fats, the French population experiences relatively low rates of coronary heart disease. This paradox, first noted in the 1980s and popularized by media coverage in the early 1990s, has intrigued researchers and the public alike, sparking debates about dietary habits and lifestyle factors.
Theories
One of the central theories behind the French Paradox is the regular consumption of red wine. While the French diet includes foods traditionally associated with higher cholesterol levels, such as cheese, butter, and meats, their heart health remains comparatively strong. Some researchers suggest that the moderate consumption of red wine, which is rich in polyphenols like resveratrol, may play a protective role in cardiovascular health. These compounds have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that could help reduce the risk of heart disease.
Red wine’s resveratrol content, in particular, has been studied for its potential to lower LDL (bad) cholesterol, prevent blood clots, and improve the overall function of blood vessels. Other polyphenols found in wine, such as quercetin and tannins, may also contribute to these heart-healthy benefits. In addition to red wine, the French diet features fresh fruits, vegetables, and a focus on portion control, all of which are key factors in maintaining overall health.
While the French Paradox has led to increased interest in the health benefits of wine, it’s important to note that the effects of alcohol vary from person to person. Excessive consumption of alcohol can lead to negative health outcomes, including liver disease and an increased risk of certain cancers. As a result, experts recommend moderate consumption, typically defined as one glass per day for women and up to two glasses for men.
Though the exact mechanisms behind the French Paradox remain a topic of ongoing research, it continues to highlight the complex relationship between diet, lifestyle, and heart health.
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Polyphenols are a group of naturally occurring compounds found in plants that are known for their antioxidant properties. They play a key role in protecting plants from ultraviolet radiation, pathogens, and oxidative stress. In the human diet, they are abundant in foods such as fruits, vegetables, tea, coffee, and red wine, with grapes, apples, berries, and certain herbs among the richest sources. Their presence in wine, particularly red wine, has made polyphenols a popular subject in discussions about the potential health benefits of moderate wine consumption.
They can be divided into several categories, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans, and stilbenes. Each category has unique properties and potential health benefits. One of the most well-known polyphenols in wine is resveratrol, a type of stilbene found in grape skins. Other important polyphenols in wine include quercetin, catechins, and tannins, which contribute to the wine’s flavor, structure, and color.
Antioxidant Properties
The antioxidant properties of polyphenols allow them to neutralize harmful free radicals in the body, which are unstable molecules that can damage cells and contribute to chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and neurodegenerative conditions. By reducing oxidative stress, they help protect cells and support overall health. This has led to research suggesting that diets rich in polyphenols may offer a range of health benefits, from improved cardiovascular function to anti-inflammatory effects.
In wine, particularly red wine, polyphenols are extracted from grape skins, seeds, and stems during the fermentation process. This is why red wine typically contains more polyphenols than white wine, as the skins are left in contact with the juice for a longer period. While the amount of polyphenols in wine may not be enough to provide significant health benefits on its own, moderate consumption of red wine as part of a balanced diet can contribute to overall health.
Polyphenols are also available in supplements. However, obtaining them from whole foods or beverages like tea, fruits, and wine is generally considered the most beneficial way to enjoy their protective properties.
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Resveratrol is a natural compound that has captured the attention of scientists, wine enthusiasts, and health-conscious individuals alike. Found in various plants—most notably in grapes—the compound belongs to the family of polyphenols, which are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In the context of the wine world, resveratrol is recognized as a potential contributor to the so-called “French Paradox,” wherein moderate wine consumption is linked to lower rates of cardiovascular disease despite diets relatively rich in saturated fats.
Despite its popularity, there are many nuances to understand about resveratrol, from how it works to where it’s best sourced. This article dives into the science behind resveratrol, its role in red wine, the potential health benefits and limitations, and how much wine one might realistically need to drink to fully take advantage of this intriguing molecule.
What Is Resveratrol?
Chemical Nature and Classification
Resveratrol is part of the stilbenoid family of polyphenols. Polyphenols are compounds produced by plants as a defense mechanism against environmental stressors such as pests, pathogens, and UV radiation. While all polyphenols share some common antioxidant traits, resveratrol stands out due to its wide range of studied effects, from anti-aging to anti-inflammatory properties.
Chemical Structure
Resveratrol is technically known as trans-3,5,4′-trihydroxystilbene.
It has two isomers: cis and trans, with the trans form generally considered more biologically active.
Natural Occurrences of Resveratrol
It is found in:
Grape Skins: Particularly abundant in red grapes, which is why red wine often contains higher concentrations of it than white wine.
Berries: Blueberries, cranberries, and bilberries contain smaller amounts.
Peanuts: Especially boiled peanuts, though the content is lower than in grape skins.
Other Sources: Japanese knotweed (Reynoutria japonica) is often used in resveratrol supplements because it has a relatively high concentration.
Plants produce resveratrol in response to injury, fungal infection, and UV radiation. This natural defense mechanism is part of what makes the compound appealing for human health—its ability to mitigate oxidative stress in plants may also provide benefits for human cells.
The Role of Resveratrol in Wine
Why Red Wine?
The difference in resveratrol content between red and white wine is rooted in the winemaking process. Red wine is fermented with the grape skins in contact with the juice, allowing the resveratrol to leach into the liquid. In contrast, white wine is fermented without the grape skins, resulting in a significantly lower concentration of it.
According to various studies, the levels of resveratrol in red wine can vary widely depending on factors such as:
Grape variety
Region and climate
Winemaking techniques
Exposure to light and oxygen during fermentation
Despite the variability, red wine remains one of the most convenient dietary sources of resveratrol for individuals who already enjoy moderate wine consumption.
The French Paradox Connection
The so-called French Paradox refers to epidemiological observations that the French population, which traditionally consumes a diet high in saturated fats (e.g., cheese, butter, and creamy sauces), has relatively low rates of heart disease. Some researchers have attributed this phenomenon, at least partially, to moderate red wine consumption and the presence of resveratrol.
Mechanisms of Action: How Resveratrol Works
Antioxidant Effects
As an antioxidant, it neutralizes harmful free radicals in the body—unstable molecules that can damage cells and DNA through oxidative stress. Chronic oxidative stress has been linked to an array of diseases, including:
Cardiovascular disease
Certain forms of cancer
Neurodegenerative conditions (e.g., Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases)
By reducing oxidative damage, resveratrol may help slow the progression of these diseases or lower their risk of onset.
Anti-Inflammatory and Cardiovascular Benefits
It has also garnered attention for its potential anti-inflammatory properties. Inflammation is a key player in numerous chronic conditions, most notably heart disease. Research indicates that resveratrol could:
Improve Endothelial Function: The endothelium is the inner lining of blood vessels. Healthy endothelial function is crucial for controlling blood pressure and preventing arterial plaque buildup.
Reduce LDL Oxidation: LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol can oxidize and form plaque in arteries, contributing to atherosclerosis. Resveratrol’s antioxidant properties may reduce the incidence of LDL oxidation.
Improve Lipid Profiles: Some studies have shown that resveratrol can positively modify lipid profiles, such as raising HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol, although the results vary.
Cell Signaling Pathways
Beyond antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, resveratrol has been studied for its influence on a variety of cellular processes, such as:
Gene expression related to longevity: Some research points to resveratrol activating sirtuins (proteins associated with aging and longevity in animal models).
Cell cycle regulation: The compound may influence the cell cycle and apoptosis (programmed cell death), which has potential implications for cancer research.
Potential Health Benefits of Resveratrol
1. Heart Health
One of the top reasons for resveratrol’s popularity is its potential role in cardiovascular health. Studies suggest that moderate wine consumption (particularly red wine) may lower the risk of heart disease. Resveratrol is often cited as a key player because it helps in:
Maintaining the flexibility of blood vessels
Reducing blood clot formation
Combatting oxidative damage
However, it’s important to note that the amount of resveratrol in a typical glass of red wine may be insufficient to yield substantial health benefits, depending on one’s overall diet, genetics, and lifestyle.
2. Anti-Aging Effects
The anti-aging properties of resveratrol stem from its potential activation of certain genetic pathways linked to longevity. Laboratory studies in yeast, worms, and mice have shown promising results, suggesting that resveratrol may mimic some effects of calorie restriction—a dietary regimen known to extend lifespan in animal models. While these findings are intriguing, more research is needed to confirm similar benefits in humans over the long term.
3. Cancer Research
Resveratrol’s antioxidant and cell-regulatory properties have spurred interest in its role in cancer prevention and therapy. Some preclinical and animal studies suggest that resveratrol may:
Inhibit the growth of certain cancer cells
Block the expression of specific genes that promote tumor growth
Enhance the effectiveness of certain chemotherapy drugs
Clinical trials in humans, however, are still limited, and the findings are not yet robust enough to make any definitive claims about its efficacy in cancer prevention or treatment.
4. Brain Health
Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s are linked to oxidative damage and inflammation in brain tissues. Resveratrol’s antioxidant action could theoretically offer some protection by:
Reducing neuroinflammation
Preventing the buildup of amyloid plaques (in Alzheimer’s)
Supporting neuronal health
Although animal models provide some support for resveratrol’s neuroprotective effects, large-scale human trials are still ongoing.
5. Metabolic Health
Some researchers have investigated resveratrol in the context of type 2 diabetes and obesity. Studies suggest that resveratrol could help:
Improve insulin sensitivity
Influence lipid metabolism
Reduce overall inflammation
While these benefits show promise, they are typically observed in controlled laboratory settings or with higher doses of resveratrol than one would get from a casual glass of wine.
How Much Wine Would You Need?
One of the most frequent questions asked is: How much red wine do I need to drink to get the benefits of resveratrol? The short answer is that the resveratrol content in red wine is relatively low compared to the doses used in many scientific studies.
Resveratrol Content per Glass: On average, a five-ounce (150 ml) glass of red wine might contain between 0.2 mg and 2 mg of resveratrol, though this can vary widely.
Doses in Studies: In laboratory or supplement studies, doses can range from 50 mg to several hundred milligrams per day, far exceeding what a moderate wine drinker would typically consume.
In reality, drinking large amounts of wine to match these research doses is neither practical nor advisable due to the risks associated with excessive alcohol consumption (e.g., liver damage, addiction, and increased caloric intake).
Resveratrol Supplements: Are They Necessary?
Given the low levels of resveratrol in wine compared to research-grade doses, many health-conscious individuals turn to resveratrol supplements as a more concentrated source. These supplements often derive resveratrol from sources like Japanese knotweed or concentrated grape extracts.
Pros of Supplements
Controlled Dosage: Supplements list exact milligram content, allowing for targeted intake.
No Alcohol: Individuals who avoid alcohol can still access resveratrol’s potential benefits.
Consistency: Quality supplements are standardized for purity and potency.
Cons of Supplements
Bioavailability Issues: Resveratrol has low bioavailability, meaning the body may not effectively absorb or utilize high doses.
Unknown Long-Term Effects: Long-term human data on high-dose resveratrol supplementation is limited.
Regulatory Variability: Supplements are not regulated as strictly as pharmaceuticals, so quality and purity can vary.
Bioavailability and Metabolism
Even if one consumes resveratrol—whether through wine or supplements—the compound’s bioavailability is a key concern. Research shows that it is metabolized quickly in the liver and might not remain in the bloodstream long enough to exert its full range of proposed health benefits.
Factors that influence resveratrol absorption and metabolism include:
Food Intake: Taking resveratrol with food, especially those containing fats, may enhance absorption.
Individual Genetics: Genetic factors can determine how quickly one’s liver processes the compound.
Gut Microbiome: A healthy gut microbiota may improve the bioavailability of polyphenols.
Potential Side Effects and Precautions
While resveratrol is generally considered safe, especially when consumed in moderate amounts through food and beverages, there are some precautions to keep in mind:
Interaction with Medications: High doses of resveratrol can interact with blood thinners and other medications that affect blood clotting, potentially increasing bleeding risk.
Estrogenic Activity: There is some evidence that resveratrol can act like estrogen in the body, so individuals with hormone-sensitive conditions should consult healthcare professionals.
Digestive Distress: Large doses of resveratrol supplements have been reported to cause mild to moderate gastrointestinal issues.
Disclaimer: The information presented here is for educational purposes and does not replace professional medical advice. Always consult a healthcare provider for personalized guidance regarding supplements and dietary changes.
Beyond Wine: Other Ways to Get Resveratrol
If you’re not fond of wine or you want to diversify your sources of resveratrol, consider these alternative dietary options:
Grapes: Especially red or purple grapes, eaten fresh or dried (raisins).
Berries: Blueberries, cranberries, and mulberries can add small doses of resveratrol.
Peanuts: Boiled peanuts have slightly higher levels than roasted peanuts, though still modest in comparison to grapes.
Dark Chocolate: While not a major source of resveratrol, high-quality dark chocolate contains other beneficial polyphenols.
Japanese Knotweed Supplements: A potent option for those seeking higher concentrations.
Practical Tips for Wine Enthusiasts
For those who love wine and want to maximize the potential health perks—resveratrol included—here are a few practical tips:
Choose Red Over White: Red wines, especially those made from thick-skinned grape varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon, tend to contain higher resveratrol levels.
Look for “Reserve” or Extended Maceration Wines: Longer fermentation times and contact with grape skins can increase polyphenol content.
Moderation Is Key: The American Heart Association recommends no more than 1–2 glasses of wine per day for men and 1 glass for women. Excessive consumption negates any potential benefits.
Storage: Store wine away from light and heat to preserve its antioxidant compounds.
Pair with a Balanced Diet: The synergy of a diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains may enhance the overall health benefits of moderate wine consumption.
Summary and Future Directions
Resveratrol remains an intriguing compound for researchers, wine aficionados, and wellness enthusiasts. From its potential in supporting heart health to its putative roles in anti-aging and cancer prevention, resveratrol’s reputation is grounded in extensive—but still evolving—scientific research. The French Paradox gave it mainstream attention, and ongoing studies continue to explore how effective and practical resveratrol may be for humans in realistic dietary amounts.
Key Takeaways:
Moderate Red Wine Intake: A convenient (and enjoyable) way to consume resveratrol, though the actual dose may be lower than that used in research studies.
Supplementation: May provide higher doses of resveratrol, but questions remain about bioavailability, safety at high doses, and long-term impacts.
Balanced Lifestyle: No single compound can override an unhealthy lifestyle. Exercise, balanced nutrition, and regular medical check-ups should accompany any focus on resveratrol.
Ongoing Research: The scientific community continues to explore resveratrol’s impact on various diseases, absorption mechanisms, and the genetic factors that influence its effectiveness.
Explore More Wine Terms
Curious about more wine terms and insights? Visit our Wine Wiki section to explore basic and advanced wine terms for expert definitions and tips. Whether you’re looking to understand the nuances of vinification, the difference between varietals, or the science of wine aging, our Wine Wiki is here to guide you through every pour.
Always drink responsibly—and enjoy the multifaceted world of resveratrol!
Disclaimer: The content provided is for informational purposes only and does not constitute medical or professional advice. Always consult a healthcare professional before making any changes to your diet, supplement routine, or lifestyle.
A punt is the indentation found at the bottom of many wine bottles, particularly in sparkling wines and some higher-quality still wines. The reason for its inclusion is a combination of both tradition and function. Historically, glassblowers would create punts to help the bottle stand upright, since hand-blown bottles often had uneven bases. Today, it remains a feature in many wine bottles, particularly those used for Champagne and other sparkling wines.
From a functional standpoint, the punt strengthens the bottle. Sparkling wines require thicker bottles to withstand the high internal pressure created by the carbon dioxide, and the punt helps distribute that pressure evenly across the bottle. Additionally, the punt allows easier handling of the bottle for pouring, offering a place to rest your thumb while holding the bottle at an angle.
Some wine enthusiasts also associate a deeper punt with higher-quality wine, although this isn’t a strict rule. The design and depth of it vary depending on the wine producer’s preferences, and not all high-quality wines have a deep punt. The aesthetic of the bottle also plays a role in the inclusion of it, as it creates a classic, elegant look that enhances the presentation of the wine.
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Tartaric Acid is the most important acid found in grapes and is responsible for giving wine its characteristic tartness. It plays a crucial role in balancing the flavors of wine by contributing to its overall structure, freshness, and stability. Without sufficient acidity, wine would taste flat and lack vibrancy.
Tartaric acid is unique to grapes, and while other fruits contain acids like citric or malic acid, tartaric acid is the dominant acid in winemaking. It helps preserve the wine during aging by maintaining a stable pH level, which is crucial for preventing spoilage and encouraging proper fermentation. It also interacts with other acids in the wine, enhancing the wine’s aroma and flavor while providing a crisp, clean finish.
During the winemaking process, some of it may crystallize and form small, harmless crystals known as “wine diamonds” or tartrates. These can often be seen on the cork or at the bottom of the bottle, especially when the wine has been chilled. These crystals are natural and don’t affect the quality of the wine, though some winemakers use cold stabilization techniques to remove excess tartaric acid before bottling.
Tartaric acid plays a key role in balancing the sugar levels in both red and white wines, helping to create a refreshing mouthfeel and lively taste. The presence and management of it influence the style of wine, from zesty, high-acid whites to rich, well-balanced reds.
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